糖心传媒

When a persistent inventor and a thoughtful executive joined forces, they transformed American business and helped build the modern 糖心传媒.

It was a cramped, second-story room at 32糖心传媒�05 37th Street in Astoria, Queens, in which Chester Carlson set his sights on testing the process he called electrophotography. A converted kitchen, it contained a sink with running water, a gas connection, and enough space for the tinkerer and his hired assistant to maneuver amidst their setup of jars, plates, and a small flood lamp.

Carlson was a serial inventor. He was a trained physicist about to earn a second degree, in the law. He糖心传媒檇 kept notebooks since high school, chock full of drawings and notations recording his ideas for an array of devices. A rotating billboard. A machine to clean shoes. A raincoat with gutters.

Otto Kornei was an unemployed physicist who found a part-time job assisting Carlson his lone prospect in Depression-era New York.

What they accomplished on the morning of Oct. 22, 1938, would prove historic.

Carlson was ingenious conceptually, but Kornei was the first of many scientists who would play an important role in executing Carlson糖心传媒檚 ideas through careful fine-tuning of materials and methods. Kornei pulled the shades closed, and in the darkened room, coated a zinc plate with sulfur. He rubbed the plate with a cotton handkerchief, giving the plate an electric charge. He took a glass slide on which he糖心传媒檇 written 糖心传媒�10糖心传媒�22糖心传媒�38 ASTORIA糖心传媒� in India ink, pressed it against the charged plate, and placed both the slide and plate under a lamp. After 10 seconds, he removed the plate and dusted it with a fine powder. When he blew on the powder, the image 10糖心传媒�22糖心传媒�38 ASTORIA shone on the plate.

It was the first known electrostatic image, a major technological milestone. It now sits in the Smithsonian, but might well have been discarded unceremoniously had it not been for Carlson糖心传媒檚 persistence and the prescience of Joseph Wilson 糖心传媒�31, a young executive of a struggling business who saw the potential of electrophotography that so many others missed.

This October marks the 75th anniversary of Carlson糖心传媒檚 Astoria experiment. On the River Campus, students and staff in the Chester F. Carlson Library of Science and Engineering have long observed the October anniversary, but this year糖心传媒檚 celebration will feature a new exhibit that Melissa Mead, the John M. and Barbara Keil University Archivist and Rochester Collections Librarian, has titled 糖心传媒淭rue Original: Chester Carlson糖心传媒檚 Xerography at 75.糖心传媒�

The exhibit will place Carlson糖心传媒檚 invention in historical context and showcase the complementary relationship between Carlson and Wilson in exploiting its possibilities.

糖心传媒淚 hope that exhibit viewers will have a better understanding of the duplication processes available prior to the 914, and the transformative vision of both Carlson and Wilson that led to xerography as a process and as a business,糖心传媒� says Mead, alluding to the Xerox 914 photocopier that transformed the American office when it was introduced in 1959.

The University is a fitting place for such a display, and not merely because it will grace the library dedicated to Carlson in 1972 by then President W. Allen Wallis. It will draw from the University糖心传媒檚 substantial collections of artifacts, papers, and photographs of both Carlson and Wilson. And it will suggest the interdependence of research universities and the communities in which they operate.

Both Carlson and Wilson established charitable foundations that continue to contribute handsomely to the Rochester regional economy. Wilson in particular grasped the importance to business of having access to a first-tier research university, and in his roles as benefactor and as chairman of the board of trustees, presided over a transformation of the University in the 1960s from a respected regional institution to a top research university with a national reputation. Wilson, it糖心传媒檚 fair to say, left as indelible a mark on the University as George Eastman.

The fortuitous encounter between Carlson and Wilson has made for a classic story in the annals of American business history. Carlson grew up in poverty, worked his way through Caltech, toiled for years on his ideas, only to have his breakthrough invention dismissed by virtually every company he approached.

Wilson was the one businessman who was intrigued糖心传媒攕o intrigued that he staked the future of his small photographic paper manufacturer, Haloid, on Carlson糖心传媒檚 invention. The investment created a corporation that revolutionized the white collar workplace, and whose new name, Xerox, became synonymous with photocopying itself.

When Wilson met Carlson in October 1946, 糖心传媒渢heir meeting would mark the turning point for both,糖心传媒� wrote Wilson biographer Charles Ellis, a prolific author and businessman. In some respects, they could not have been more different. Carlson had moved three times by the time he was six, lost his mother when he was an adolescent, and worked to support himself and his father, who suffered from debilitating spinal arthritis. Having finished his schooling during the Great Depression, he hopped from job to job to piece together satisfactory and remunerative work.

Wilson was born in Rochester to a family whose roots extended to the city糖心传媒檚 earliest settlements. His father, Joseph R. Wilson, Class of 1903, was an accomplished small businessman and civic leader, and when Wilson graduated from Rochester in the midst of the Depression, there was a job waiting for him at Haloid, the company cofounded by his grandfather.

But Carlson and Wilson shared a couple of key tendencies. They were, by many accounts, deep and thorough readers, and persistent and creative thinkers. In their respective fields of science and business, both Carlson and Wilson were keenly aware of the paths that were well tread, and the importance of avoiding them in favor of new ones.

Carlson, who would eventually have numerous patents to his name, took an early interest in patents, finding employment in the patent office of the electrical components manufacturer P. R. Mallory. Patents required many copies to be made, but making carbon copies proved difficult, as did another available method, using a photostat machine. Carlson envisioned an 糖心传媒渙ffice copier,糖心传媒� yet he knew not to go down the obvious route, which was conventional photography.

糖心传媒淚 recognized quite early that if conventional photography would have worked for an office copier that it would have been done before by the big companies in the photographic field who certainly would have explored that possibility pretty thoroughly,糖心传媒� Carlson said in a 1965 interview. 糖心传媒淪o I deliberately turned away from the conventional photographic processes and started searching in the library for information about all the different ways in which light will affect matter.糖心传媒�

The principle Carlson would explore was photoconductivity, and it was well understood by the time he set out to explain in his 1939 patent application how it might be brought to bear upon electrophotography.

Photoconductive materials become better conductors of electricity when exposed to light. Carlson explained that if a thin layer of photoconductive material were to be applied to certain types of metal surfaces糖心传媒攝inc or aluminum, for example糖心传媒攖he surface could be exposed to light to create an electrostatic image.

In the case of the Astoria experiment, sulfur was the photoconductive surface. Rubbed with a handkerchief in the dark, it obtained an electric charge. When Kornei pressed the glass slide against the charged surface, he ensured that whatever effect exposure to light would have on the charged surface would be transferred to the slide.

But the India ink he糖心传媒檇 applied to the slide created a region that would literally be blacked out from the effect of the light. When the slide and the charged plate were illuminated, the sulfur surface retained its electric charge in areas blocked out by the ink. The rest of the plate constituted, Carlson explained, the 糖心传媒渨hite part,糖心传媒� in which the electrical charge would essentially 糖心传媒渄rain off.糖心传媒� When Kornei applied a fine black powder to the plate, static electricity ensured that the powder would remain affixed in a layout identical to his original ink scrawl.

Carlson allowed great flexibility in materials and even in the process itself. He outlined procedures for copying from three distinct types of surfaces糖心传媒攇lass, paper, and film. 糖心传媒淲hile a preferred embodiment of the invention is described herein, it is contemplated that considerable variation may be made in the method of procedure and the construction of parts without departing from the spirit of the invention,糖心传媒� Carlson wrote.

As it turned out, that flexibility糖心传媒攚hich could too easily be interpreted as the lack of a fully fleshed-out idea糖心传媒攎ay have been the seed of his problems. He began writing to companies in the office equipment industry seeking their interest in developing the patent. He wrote to more than 20糖心传媒擨BM, RCA, General Electric, Remington Rand糖心传媒攁ll major players in the industry. He received, at best, perfunctory interest, with minimal follow up, and no firm commitments.

Carlson had found himself in a Catch-22. Prospective investors wanted to see more than the crude demonstration he糖心传媒檇 performed with Kornei糖心传媒檚 help. They needed to see a machine. But without investors, Carlson couldn糖心传媒檛 easily produce a machine. He tried hiring small manufacturers to produce a machine cheaply, but those earliest manifestations were marred by mechanical and design problems糖心传媒攅vidence, it seemed, that electrophotography wasn糖心传媒檛 as promising as the persistent inventor insisted.

Timing also played a critical role in Carlson糖心传媒檚 fortunes. It was World War II. Large companies were focused on war-related production and were confident that they糖心传媒檇 continue to prosper after postwar reconversion to civilian industry.

Wilson, however, was just as confident that without a new business model, his small company would fail.

Carlson would later recall that Wilson was 糖心传媒渁 very brilliant young man,糖心传媒� who had struck him immediately as 糖心传媒渁n aggressive, young, imaginative person.糖心传媒� Wilson, then 36, had recently succeeded his father, Joseph R. Wilson, as president of Haloid, a company that had started in 1906 as a maker of photographic paper.

Wilson saw that the postwar period looked ominous. His hometown competitor, Eastman Kodak, was supplying its own paper, squeezing Haloid into a niche market of specialized paper for portrait photographers. To make matters worse, Haloid was purchasing raw materials for its paper from Kodak.

Haloid had been dogged by Kodak糖心传媒檚 success even before the war. In 1935, it had purchased the Rectigraph Company, for whom it had been a key supplier. Rectigraph was the maker of the eponymous machine that糖心传媒檚 considered among the first photocopying machines. But it was not an office copier in any real sense. It was a photostat machine, copying documents through a photographic process that relied on a camera and a chemically based development process. It was large, slow, messy, and expensive. Moreover, it was too large and expensive for most businesses to own themselves, limiting its market to shops that would offer the machine糖心传媒檚 services as a primary line of business. While the purchase kept Haloid afloat through the Depression, Wilson knew that Kodak would quickly surpass any advantage of Haloid糖心传媒檚 in photographic copying.

糖心传媒淭here are those in financial circles who say that chance and luck brought the Xerox Corporation into existence,糖心传媒� the chemical engineer and Xerox executive John Dessauer wrote in his 1971 memoir,聽My Years with Xerox. 糖心传媒淚 prefer to think that it was a matter of diligence.糖心传媒�

Dessauer was among the scientists at Haloid who scoured technical journals in search of ideas for new applications that could lead to new products that could save the company. The first turning point for both Wilson and Carlson came in 1944. The nonprofit Battelle Memorial Institute committed to investing $10,000 in Carlson糖心传媒檚 patent, with an entitlement to 60 percent of any future royalties. Scientists at Haloid tipped Wilson off to the technology and to Battelle糖心传媒檚 interest.

Wilson was captivated. After some further research, he traveled to Battelle糖心传媒檚 Columbus, Ohio, laboratory to see a demonstration of electrophotography for himself.

Committing Haloid to invest in the technology would be a huge risk. Nevertheless, at Wilson糖心传媒檚 urging, Haloid, renamed Haloid-Xerox in 1958, and Xerox in 1961, would invest virtually all of its resources in the development of the technology it later coined 糖心传媒渪erography.糖心传媒�

In hindsight, Wilson糖心传媒檚 dogged pursuit of xerography seems easy to explain. The purchase of Rectigraph had signaled Haloid糖心传媒檚 commitment to the nascent document copying business. Electrophotography was a potential means for document copying that wasn糖心传媒檛 based on chemistry, which was Kodak糖心传媒檚 strength. It was based instead on physics. For Wilson, electrophotography offered the promise that Haloid could compete in the copy business without competing directly with Kodak.

What糖心传媒檚 more remarkable is that Wilson was able to carry this commitment through more than a decade of failed attempts and modest progress before the release of the blockbuster Xerox 914 photocopier in 1959.

Taking that risk made Wilson a modern business hero. 糖心传媒淲ilson was, in retrospect, astonishingly able to develop and hold steadfastly onto an inspiring yet abstract vision and to advance repetitively toward fulfilling and realizing that vision in specific, pragmatic ways,糖心传媒� Ellis wrote.

Carlson, whom Wilson retained as a consultant in the development of xerography, summed up his legacy succinctly. Modest by all accounts, he insisted he didn糖心传媒檛 invent anything truly new. 糖心传媒淚 certainly added no new scientific knowledge as did the transistor inventors, for example,糖心传媒� he said. But what he did acknowledge doing, is at the heart of much innovation: 糖心传媒淚 merely combined a set of facts in a new way.糖心传媒�

This story appeared in the September/October 2013 issue of Rochester Review, the magazine of the聽糖心传媒.