{"id":653052,"date":"2025-07-03T15:03:29","date_gmt":"2025-07-03T19:03:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/?p=653052"},"modified":"2026-03-24T13:45:44","modified_gmt":"2026-03-24T17:45:44","slug":"how-do-conspiracy-theories-work-explainer-653052","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/how-do-conspiracy-theories-work-explainer-653052\/","title":{"rendered":"Who\u2019s immune to conspiracy theories?"},"content":{"rendered":"<style>.embed-container { position: relative; padding-bottom: 56.25%; height: 0; overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%; } .embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed { position: absolute; top: 0; left: 0; width: 100%; height: 100%; }<\/style>\n<div class=\"embed-container\"><iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/TyIBHSIqUdk\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Rochester faculty on how political conspiracy theories start and spread\u2014and why people believe them.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":942,"featured_media":653132,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[456],"tags":[21462,18592,41792,20302,41172,16072,41702,41012],"class_list":["post-653052","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-society-culture","tag-department-of-political-science","tag-department-of-psychology","tag-ever-wonder","tag-harry-reis","tag-james-druckman","tag-school-of-arts-and-sciences","tag-scott-tyson","tag-videos"],"acf":{"external":"","hide_featured_image":true,"related":"show_related","style":[610522,563502,483542],"content_modules":[{"acf_fc_layout":"text","anchor":"","css_class":"pt-15","title":"<h2><strong>How political conspiracy theories start and spread, and why people believe them.<\/strong><\/h2>","content":"There is just no way around the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jfk.org\/assassination-faq\/\">grassy knoll<\/a>. The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.archives.gov\/exhibits\/eyewitness\/html.php?section=14#:~:text=Kennedy%20was%20shot%20in%20Dallas,the%20President%20was%20pronounced%20dead.\">1963 assassination<\/a> of US President John F. Kennedy in Dallas near that now-infamous hill has given rise to thousands of variations on the same theme: Did Lee Harvey Oswald act alone or was there another shooter? Who else might have been involved? The list of possible co-conspirators seems endless\u2014including the CIA, the mafia, the KGB, anti-Castro Cubans, or even Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson himself.\r\n\r\nConspiracy theories are certainly not a new phenomenon. In fact, some, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ajc.org\/translatehate\/blood-libel\">blood libel conspiracy theory<\/a> against Jews, date back to at least the Middle Ages. Yet things started to change in the last decade or so, argues <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psc\/people\/view.php?fid=20230112\">Scott Tyson<\/a>, an associate professor of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psc\/index.html\">political science<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/\">糖心传媒<\/a>. This period saw an intense \u201cweaponization of conspiracism among politicians\u201d in the United States\u2014on both sides of the aisle.\r\n\r\n\u201cI think now we\u2019re just well past the point of no return,\u201d says Tyson, who teaches an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psc\/courses\/view.php?cid=20192112\">undergraduate class on conspiracy theories<\/a> in American politics and whose research focuses on formal political theory, international relations, and the theoretical implications of empirical political models.\r\n<h3><strong>What is a conspiracy theory?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nThree ingredients make up the so-called conspiracy ecosystem, explains Tyson:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>First, there\u2019s <strong>the content<\/strong> itself, which often goes through several iterations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Then, there\u2019s <strong>the conspiracy entrepreneur<\/strong>, the person who packages it and targets it at an audience.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>And finally, there\u2019s <strong>the audience<\/strong>\u2014the people who are disposed to believe that particular content.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nA conspiracy theory, according to a<a href=\"https:\/\/commission.europa.eu\/strategy-and-policy\/coronavirus-response\/fighting-disinformation\/identifying-conspiracy-theories_en\"> warning by the European Commission<\/a> (the executive body of the European Union), is usually without solid and publicly verifiable evidence. It typically centers on a person\u2019s or group\u2019s belief that events or situations are the result of a secret and often unlawful or harmful plot by powerful people or organizations.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_653132\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"2000\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-653132\" src=\"http:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/fea-how-do-conspiracy-theories-work-4687_ConspiracyDog_FINAL_NChero.jpg\" alt=\"A dog wearing a tin foil hat stares at an open laptop screen. Behind him is a &quot;ripped from the headlines&quot; collage of conspiracy theories a dog might believe.\" width=\"2000\" height=\"1200\" \/> <strong>THE TRUTH IS OUT THERE?<\/strong> Conspiracy theories are not a new phenomenon, but online algorithms and social media outlets have fueled the rise of digital echo chambers. (糖心传媒 photo illustration \/ Michael Osadciw and Adam Fenster)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nConspiracy theories thrive especially in environments where uncertainty, fear, or distrust are rampant, explains Tyson. Frequently people\u2019s heightened level of wariness\u2014of government, media, elites, or institutions\u2014is the result of past public scandals (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fbi.gov\/history\/famous-cases\/watergate\">Watergate<\/a> or the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tuskegee\/about\/index.html\">Tuskegee syphilis study<\/a>), corruption, or a widespread sense of\u00a0political disillusionment.\r\n\r\nConspiracy theories\u2014Tyson prefers to refer to them as \u201cconspiracisms\u201d because they are devoid of rigorous scientifically tested theories\u2014come in a wide variety. What <a href=\"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1745691618774270\">unites them<\/a> is usually a combination of four elements:\r\n<ul style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\r\n \t<li><strong>Secrecy<\/strong>. The belief that the alleged conspiracy is purposefully hidden from the public.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Power<\/strong>. The belief that powerful groups, such as governments, corporations, or elites are involved.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Suspicion<\/strong>. A conspiracy theory challenges the mainstream or official explanation of an event or occurrence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Lack of conclusive proof.<\/strong> Conspiracy theories are built on circumstantial evidence, anomalies, or perceived cover-ups without verifiable proof.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><strong>The internet\u2014and particularly social media\u2014has contributed to the spread of conspiracy theories.<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nMany social media platforms have become echo chambers where almost anyone can easily find groups that validate one\u2019s beliefs\u2014even the most outlandish ones. Moreover, online algorithms prioritize content that is emotionally engaging, which means that sensational or conspiratorial content frequently gets pushed to the forefront. According to Tyson, people are more likely to believe these (false) tropes because they\u2019ve heard variations of them many times before.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/article\/4\/6\/pgaf193\/8162668?login=false\">Recent research<\/a> coauthored by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psc\/people\/view.php?fid=20230315\">James Druckman<\/a>, the Martin Brewer Anderson Professor of Political Science at the University of Rochester, underscores the role of social networks and social media in the spread of conspiracy theories. In surveys conducted after the <a href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/trump-shooting-rally-a1bcbaa4a604e09be8cc22893751895b\">attempted assassination of Donald Trump<\/a> in July 2024 at a Pennsylvania presidential campaign rally, social media was the most commonly reported source of conspiracy theories about the event. Yet surprisingly, the researchers found that consuming information on social media was not consistently associated with stronger conspiracy beliefs. Instead, information received through personal networks was more closely linked to endorsement of both left- and right-leaning conspiracy narratives.\r\n\r\n\u201cSocial media plays an important role in the spread of conspiracy theories\u2014it is a primary mechanism through which people learn about them. Also important, though, is one\u2019s social network,\u201d says Druckman. \u201cWhen those in one\u2019s social network are more likely to believe a conspiracy belief, so is that person. In that sense, conspiracy theories are social phenomena.\u201d Studying conspiracy theories as social phenomena will enhance our understanding of their origins and consequences, according to the researchers.\r\n\r\nAnd while most conspiracy theories don\u2019t lead to violence, they can and do when used as a mobilization tool and when endorsed by leaders, according to Tyson. \u201cWe\u2019ve seen violence emerge from right-wing conspiracies because conspiracism has become fashionable on the right in the last 10 years,\u201d says Tyson. \u201cAnd political violence has become fashionable on both sides of the political spectrum in the last 15 years.\u201d\r\n<h3><strong>From craving belonging to seeking patterns, basic human psychology underpins our tendency toward conspiratorial thinking.<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nBy their very nature, conspiracy theories cater powerfully to basic <strong>human psychological needs. <\/strong>According to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/really-motivates-us\/\">self-determination theory of human motivation<\/a>, developed by Rochester psychologists Richard Ryan and Ed Deci, these include the need for <strong>autonomy, competence, and relatedness<\/strong>.\r\n\r\nConspiracies exploit our fundamental desire to belong to a social group and feel connected to others. They often divide the world into \u201cus\u201d (the ones who know the truth) and \u201cthem\u201d (the powerful elites who are hiding the truth). This division creates a sense of belonging and solidarity\u2014that is, relatedness\u2014with others who share similar beliefs.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_654042\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"450\"]<img class=\"wp-image-654042\" src=\"http:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/inline-conspiracy-theory-dogs_1038flat-1.jpg\" alt=\"Black dog wearing a tin foil hat lays on the ground and looks up with sad puppy dog eyes.\" width=\"450\" height=\"407\" \/> <strong>TRUST NO ONE?<\/strong> Conspiracy theories thrive in environments where uncertainty, fear, or distrust are rampant.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSimilarly, believing in conspiracy theories can help create a sense of autonomy, or a feeling of control over one\u2019s actions and choices so that a person is no longer powerless in the face of unknown forces. Buying into conspiratorial thinking may also feel rewarding because it fosters a sense of moral or intellectual superiority for knowing the \u201creal\u201d truth.\r\n\r\nBeyond appealing to these basic needs, conspiracism activates our innate cognitive biases\u2014mental processes that can lead to illogical and irrational decisions by providing seductively simple answers and seemingly reassuring explanations for our complex and often chaotic world. One example is <a href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/citations?view_op=view_citation&amp;hl=en&amp;user=XlAFwrsAAAAJ&amp;citation_for_view=XlAFwrsAAAAJ:M3ejUd6NZC8C\"><strong>confirmation bias<\/strong><\/a>, in which people tend to favor information that supports their pre-existing beliefs. A conspiracy entrepreneur can exploit these natural tendencies to sow conspiratorial thinking in the audience. Furthermore, we are wired to detect patterns, even where none exist, a phenomenon referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-023-36230-0\"><strong>illusory pattern perception<\/strong><\/a>. This skewed perception may make random events appear the result of deliberate, secret plots.\r\n\r\n\u201cAll these biases are well-documented in the psychological literature, and it makes perfect sense that they\u2019d be applicable to issues as important as the conspiracy theories of our time,\u201d says <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psy\/people\/faculty\/reis_harry\/index.html\">Harry Reis<\/a>, the Dean\u2019s Professor and a professor in the Rochester <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psy\/index.html\">Department of Psychology<\/a>.\r\n<h3><strong>The most-believed conspiracy theories in America tend to involve the government.<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_653462\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"450\"]<img class=\"wp-image-653462 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/05\/Frustrated-X-Files-GIF-by-The-X-Files.gif\" alt=\"GIF of a frustrated Fox Mulder from the X-Files, who believes in government conspiracy theories, with an &quot;I want to believe&quot; poster behind him.\" width=\"450\" height=\"339\" \/> <strong>I WANT TO BELIEVE:<\/strong> Fox Mulder, the FBI special agent from the TV series <em>The X-Files<\/em>, is known for his belief in extraterrestrial life and government conspiracies to conceal their existence. (GIPHY)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile fluctuating over time, the most widely believed ones in the United States are frequently <a href=\"https:\/\/today.yougov.com\/politics\/articles\/48113-which-conspiracy-theories-do-americans-believe\">government conspiracy theories<\/a>, according to international data analytics firm YouGov.\r\n\r\nTopping the list is the idea that JFK\u2019s assassination was covered up\u2014with 65 percent of Americans believing that more than one man shot the late president\u2014according to a <a href=\"https:\/\/news.gallup.com\/poll\/514310\/decades-later-americans-doubt-lone-gunman-killed-jfk.aspx\">2023 Gallup poll<\/a>. Many Americans also buy into the notions that the terror attacks of 9\/11 were an inside job, that the government continues to hide evidence of extraterrestrial life at Roswell, that secret elites control government policy behind the scenes, and that the NASA moon landing was faked in a Hollywood TV studio.\r\n\r\nInterestingly, notes Tyson, most of the 9\/11 conspiracies originated as left-wing conspiracies, moving from the left to the right political spectrum over the years.\r\n<h3><strong>\u2018We are all susceptible\u2019 to conspiratorial thinking.<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nWho believes in conspiracy theories? The truth is, hardly anybody is immune.\r\n\r\n\u201cWe all are susceptible to falling into conspiracy black holes,\u201d warns Tyson. It\u2019s a myth, he says, that humans divide neatly into one of two categories\u2014those who believe in conspiracy theories and those who don\u2019t. Instead, most people are <em>somewhat <\/em>susceptible to believing in conspiracism, although some are more prone to being seduced than others.\r\n\r\n\u201cBut I always tell students, \u2018Don\u2019t look at people who tell you a conspiracy theory and judge them because, in fact, we are all susceptible,\u2019\u201d says Tyson. \u201cIt could\u2019ve been you.\u201d\r\n\r\n<em>Editor\u2019s note: This story was originally published on May 21, 2025. It was updated and republished to include new research published in PNAS Nexus from Druckman and his coauthors.\u00a0<\/em>\r\n<h3><strong>Meet your Rochester professors<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<h4><strong><img class=\"alignright wp-image-625642\" src=\"http:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/10\/Round_Tyson_white.jpg\" alt=\"Circle crop of an environmental portrait of Scott Tyson.\" width=\"350\" height=\"350\" \/>Scott Tyson<\/strong>\r\n<em>Associate Professor of Political Science<\/em><\/h4>\r\nTyson\u2019s research focuses on formal political theory, political economy, conflict, authoritarian politics, external validity, and experimental design. He has authored or coauthored scholarly articles that have appeared in the <em>Journal of Politics<\/em>, <em>American Journal of Political Science<\/em>, <em>American Political Science Review<\/em>, <em>Political Science Research and Methods<\/em>, and <em>PS: Political Science and Politics<\/em>.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psc\/people\/view.php?fid=20230112\">Learn more about Tyson.<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4 style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>James Druckman<\/strong>\r\n<em><img class=\"alignright wp-image-625622\" src=\"http:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/10\/Round_Druckman_white.jpg\" alt=\"Circle cutout featuring an environmental portrait of James Druckman.\" width=\"350\" height=\"350\" \/>Martin Brewer Anderson Professor of Political Science<\/em><\/h4>\r\nAn expert in political behavior and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Druckman studies public opinion formation, political polarization, political and scientific communication, political psychology, and experimental and survey methods. He has published approximately 200 articles and book chapters. His latest coauthored book, <em>Partisan Hostility and American Democracy: Explaining Political Divisions and When They Matter<\/em> (University of Chicago), was published in 2024.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sites.google.com\/view\/jamie-druckman\/home?authuser=0\">Learn more about Druckman.<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4><strong><img class=\"alignright wp-image-658782\" src=\"http:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/07\/Round_Harry-Reis_1000x1000.jpg\" alt=\"Circle cutout of a portrait of Harry Reis.\" width=\"350\" height=\"350\" \/>Harry Reis<\/strong>\r\n<em>Dean's Professor of Psychology<\/em><\/h4>\r\nReis is a leading researcher in the field of social psychology. He is credited with helping to launch the field of relationship science, studying the factors that influence the quantity and closeness of social interaction, and the consequences of different patterns of socializing for health and psychological well-being.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psy\/people\/faculty\/reis_harry\/\">Learn more about Reis.<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","background_color":"#ffffff","width":"width-medium"},{"acf_fc_layout":"card_grid","anchor":"","css_class":"","title":"","description":"","background_color":"#FFFFFF","width":"width-medium","columns":"1","cards":[{"card_title":"<p class=\"u-card-title\">Rochester Political Science<\/p>","card_text":"For more than five decades, the University of Rochester's top-ranked Department of Political Science has transformed the discipline\u2014even pioneering the positive political theory approach, now mainstream in the field.\r\n<p class=\"card_cta\">We put the \u2018science\u2019 in political science<\/p>","card_background_color":"#00205b","card_hover_color":"#283faf","card_link":{"title":"","url":"https:\/\/www.sas.rochester.edu\/psc\/","target":""},"card_hover_arrow":"","card_image":626192,"card_image_size":"image_thumbnail","card_image_placement":"image_left","card_image_hover_state":"hover_fade","card_image_link":""}]}]},"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v28.4 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Who\u2019s immune to conspiracy theories?<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"糖心传媒 faculty explain how political conspiracy theories start and spread, and why people believe them.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rochester.edu\/newscenter\/how-do-conspiracy-theories-work-explainer-653052\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta 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